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新基因功能驗(yàn)證技術(shù)及其在微藻基因克隆中的適用性分析?

2014-01-22 07:24:41楊官品林根妹
關(guān)鍵詞:基因功能報(bào)告基因微藻

楊官品,林根妹

(中國(guó)海洋大學(xué)海洋生命學(xué)院,山東青島266003)

新基因功能驗(yàn)證技術(shù)及其在微藻基因克隆中的適用性分析?

楊官品,林根妹

(中國(guó)海洋大學(xué)海洋生命學(xué)院,山東青島266003)

微藻是指1群真核、單細(xì)胞、行光合作用的生物。微藻種類(lèi)多,分布廣泛,有關(guān)鍵生態(tài)學(xué)功能,也有水產(chǎn)、生物能源應(yīng)用價(jià)值。與模式生物和經(jīng)濟(jì)動(dòng)植物一樣,新基因克隆是微藻生物學(xué)研究的主要內(nèi)容?;蚪M注釋、轉(zhuǎn)錄組分析和基因分離等依據(jù)序列和結(jié)構(gòu)同源性,是從已知到已知的過(guò)程;而新基因克隆需鎖定序列和驗(yàn)證功能,其中,功能驗(yàn)證是基因克隆的最重要內(nèi)容。已有的基因功能驗(yàn)證方法有基因敲除、基因沉默、插入突變、基因組編輯等。多種微藻已有遺傳轉(zhuǎn)化技術(shù),有望直接采用模式生物和經(jīng)濟(jì)動(dòng)植物的基因功能驗(yàn)證技術(shù)克隆新基因。本文歸納了已有新基因功能驗(yàn)證技術(shù),并分析了它們?cè)谖⒃逍禄蚩寺≈械倪m用性,以促進(jìn)微藻新基因克隆研究。

微藻;全新基因;基因克??;遺傳轉(zhuǎn)化

第一代測(cè)序的強(qiáng)力推動(dòng)[1]、第二代測(cè)序[2]的快速普及、第三代測(cè)序[3]和蛋白質(zhì)組學(xué)分析[4]的逐步興起,使人們能快速、低成本獲得海量DNA、RNA和蛋白質(zhì)序列,并基于這些序列解析眾多生物學(xué)過(guò)程和現(xiàn)象的生理、遺傳機(jī)制。但是,這些分子生物學(xué)研究的主流手段根植于“序列和結(jié)構(gòu)相似性”,對(duì)基因功能的認(rèn)知實(shí)際上是“從已知到已知”的過(guò)程。不論是基因組測(cè)序,還是轉(zhuǎn)錄組、蛋白組分析,依據(jù)相似性注釋的基因只占一定比例且無(wú)法知曉這些基因的新功能;而在非模式生物中,可注釋基因比例經(jīng)常更低。同樣的情況還見(jiàn)于基因克隆和表達(dá)分析?;蚩寺〗?jīng)常是基于其他物種相同功能基因的同源性,與依據(jù)化學(xué)、物理性質(zhì)差異分離特定物質(zhì)的過(guò)程相似,依據(jù)基因間同源性分離基因。盡管常冠以新或全新基因克隆,但這樣的“克隆”只能說(shuō)是分離,不是真正的克隆,更不是從頭克隆(Denovo cloning),分離的基因也不是新(New)基因,更不是全新(Novel)基因?;蚩寺”仨毎ㄦi定基因序列和闡明基因功能2個(gè)環(huán)節(jié),實(shí)際上,兩者經(jīng)常是不可分的過(guò)程。即使在目前的技術(shù)背景下,鎖定新基因序列、闡明新基因功能仍十分困難。因此,從頭克隆一個(gè)基因并闡明其功能仍然是極其出彩的工作。直至今天,基因的從頭克隆仍能發(fā)表在頂級(jí)期刊上,例如動(dòng)物育性基因[5]和性別決定基因[6]。試圖克隆選定物種的基因時(shí),必須牢記不僅僅要鎖定基因序列,還要闡明其功能(包括已知基因的新功能);不只是基于相似性推知基因功能,而是用生物體系證明基因功能。

微藻是指真核、單細(xì)胞(少數(shù)是細(xì)胞集合)、有光合作用能力、能自由生活的一群生物,種類(lèi)多,分布廣,生物學(xué)特性復(fù)雜,研究基礎(chǔ)薄弱?;诮Y(jié)構(gòu)和序列相似性(同源性)分離微藻基因、注釋微藻基因組如火如荼,但從頭克隆微藻基因案例仍十分罕見(jiàn)。細(xì)菌、真菌、果蠅、線(xiàn)蟲(chóng)、斑馬魚(yú)、小鼠、擬南芥、水稻等模式生物基因克隆成就斐然,相關(guān)研究方法和策略有望用于微藻基因克隆。本文歸納了已有的鎖定基因序列、闡明基因功能的方法,并分析了這些方法在微藻基因克隆中的適用性,期望藉此促進(jìn)微藻新基因克隆研究。

1 基因敲除(Gene knockout)

基因敲除經(jīng)同源重組(Homologous recombination)插入阻斷目標(biāo)基因表達(dá),比較敲除前后表型差異闡明基因功能。基因敲除是闡明基因功能最有效方法之一[7]。目標(biāo)基因可隨機(jī)選定,亦可依已有認(rèn)知確定,或經(jīng)遺傳學(xué)分析鎖定?;蚯贸谢虼虬小⒒虿东@等不同表述。

1.1基因打靶(Gene targeting)

基因打靶指定點(diǎn)敲除或修飾選定基因的過(guò)程。動(dòng)物基因打靶組合使用同源重組和胚胎干細(xì)胞培養(yǎng)技術(shù)。敲除載體包含正選擇標(biāo)記(如新霉素抗性基因neo)和負(fù)選擇標(biāo)記(如單純皰疹病毒胸腺嘧啶激酶基因HSV-tk、白喉毒素基因DTA)。載體進(jìn)入胚胎干細(xì)胞,neo基因兩側(cè)與目標(biāo)基因同源重組,新霉素篩選獲得抗性細(xì)胞(正選擇),再消除隨機(jī)整合(負(fù)選擇)[8]?;贑re/loxP重組酶系統(tǒng)的基因打靶,可實(shí)現(xiàn)時(shí)間和位置控制,避免敲除基因?qū)е屡咛ニ劳龆鵁o(wú)法觀(guān)察表型。核移植和體細(xì)胞克隆使體細(xì)胞基因打靶成為可能[9],但隨機(jī)整合率高,多基因同步打靶困難。

哺乳動(dòng)物基因打靶的正負(fù)篩選對(duì)植物也有效,如水稻waxy基因打靶[10]。擬南芥中可用綠色熒光蛋白表型觀(guān)察替代新霉素抗性篩選[11]。但植物隨機(jī)整合頻率高,基因打靶效率低。由于非同源末端連接途徑活躍,真菌同源重組效率也偏低。遺傳修飾關(guān)閉非同源末端連接途徑可提高粗糙脈孢菌、稻瘟病菌等基因打靶效率[12-13]。

雖未明確使用基因打靶這一表述,但基因打靶在細(xì)菌中早有應(yīng)用。熟悉的大腸桿菌克隆系統(tǒng)的藍(lán)白斑篩選就是基因插入失活基因的例子。同源重組是細(xì)菌基因修飾的常用工具。例如,將特定基因側(cè)翼序列組合在基因修飾產(chǎn)物兩側(cè),經(jīng)同源重組可高效修飾大腸桿菌基因[14-15]。

1.2基因捕獲(Gene trapping)

基因捕獲載體攜帶的報(bào)告基因與整合位點(diǎn)上內(nèi)源基因融合,生成報(bào)告基因和內(nèi)源基因調(diào)控序列融合體。內(nèi)源基因突變使性狀改變,而報(bào)告基因的表達(dá)使追尋內(nèi)源基因成為可能。

基因捕獲涉及的內(nèi)源基因表達(dá)調(diào)控序列包括啟動(dòng)子和增強(qiáng)子。在將報(bào)告基因經(jīng)同源重組隨機(jī)植入基因組的過(guò)程中,若有內(nèi)源啟動(dòng)子(Promoter)使報(bào)告基因表達(dá),就能根據(jù)報(bào)告基因選出突變株;同時(shí),報(bào)告基因表達(dá)引起啟動(dòng)子控制基因的失活,從而依據(jù)表型變化可確定啟動(dòng)子控制基因的功能。盡管基因的啟動(dòng)子捕獲有隨機(jī)性,但短時(shí)間內(nèi)可大量敲除基因[16]。增強(qiáng)子(Enhancer)加強(qiáng)基因轉(zhuǎn)錄,且增強(qiáng)作用與它和基因的相對(duì)方向、位置無(wú)關(guān)。增強(qiáng)子可增強(qiáng)或阻遏幾千堿基對(duì)之遙基因轉(zhuǎn)錄,也可干涉異源啟動(dòng)子功能。通過(guò)同源重組將啟動(dòng)子和報(bào)告基因引入基因組,若增強(qiáng)子發(fā)揮功能,則報(bào)告基因表達(dá)強(qiáng)度會(huì)改變,且該增強(qiáng)子對(duì)應(yīng)基因決定的性狀會(huì)受影響。依據(jù)報(bào)告基因強(qiáng)弱和性狀差異,可證實(shí)基因功能。增強(qiáng)子基因捕獲已成功用于果蠅大規(guī)?;蚝Y選[17],在小鼠中也表現(xiàn)出獨(dú)特的優(yōu)勢(shì)[18]。報(bào)告基因lacZ高度靈敏且易檢測(cè)。經(jīng)逆轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒介導(dǎo)或其他途徑將lacZ報(bào)告基因構(gòu)建物隨機(jī)整合到小鼠胚胎干細(xì)胞基因組中,若報(bào)告基因按正確方向整合到某基因內(nèi)含子下游,無(wú)移碼突變,則產(chǎn)生具活性的β-半乳糖苷酶融合蛋白。若胚胎干細(xì)胞形成生殖細(xì)胞,則可產(chǎn)生雜合小鼠形成表型。該方法不僅可快速產(chǎn)生大量突變,而且lacZ基因表達(dá)位置和時(shí)間可反映內(nèi)源基因表達(dá)模式[19]。

基因打靶可敲除任何基因,但耗時(shí)費(fèi)力;而基因捕獲高效,但有隨機(jī)性。國(guó)際基因敲除小鼠聯(lián)盟(The international knockout mouse consortium,IKMC)致力于組合使用基因打靶和基因捕獲,開(kāi)發(fā)出定向捕獲、條件性基因捕獲等方法,以達(dá)到覆蓋基因更多、打靶效率更高的效果[20]。

目前,包括衣藻、三角褐指藻、微綠球藻等在內(nèi)的大量真核和原核微藻已經(jīng)建立起隨機(jī)整合甚至同源重組遺傳轉(zhuǎn)化體系[21-27]。集胞藻中功能基因敲除技術(shù)已較為成熟,已有同源重組成功案例。在上下游同源臂間插入抗性基因或報(bào)告基因構(gòu)建基因敲除或啟動(dòng)子捕獲載體,轉(zhuǎn)入集胞藻細(xì)胞,可闡明選定基因功能[87-88]。在萊茵衣藻基因打靶嘗試中發(fā)現(xiàn),單鏈DNA可顯著降低隨機(jī)整合頻率,較雙鏈DNA同源重組效率高[28]。將編碼蛋白有博來(lái)霉素(Zeocin)抗性的ble基因作為選擇標(biāo)記插入硝酸/亞硝酸還原酶基因,形成線(xiàn)狀構(gòu)建物可電穿孔轉(zhuǎn)入微綠球藻,敲除這2種酶基因[29],很多實(shí)驗(yàn)室(包括筆者實(shí)驗(yàn)室)正在重復(fù)驗(yàn)證這一同源重組系統(tǒng)。但和高等植物類(lèi)似,微藻中極有可能存在同源重組效率低的問(wèn)題??梢云诖诓痪玫膶?lái),基因打靶和基因捕獲技術(shù)將會(huì)用于微藻新基因的克隆和功能驗(yàn)證,成為微藻基因克隆研究不可或缺的工具。

2 基因沉默(Gene silencing)

基因沉默通過(guò)降低基因表達(dá)水平改變表型,從而驗(yàn)證基因功能。基因沉默手段主要是RNA干擾(RNA interference,RNAi)和反義嗎啉代寡核苷酸(Morpholino)干擾。RNA干擾通過(guò)人工引入完美堿基配對(duì)的dsRNA,經(jīng)Dicer酶、Ago蛋白等(RNA干擾系統(tǒng))作用形成siRNA,誘導(dǎo)mRNA特異性降解,沉默基因功能,改變對(duì)應(yīng)性狀表現(xiàn)[30-31]。引入干擾RNA的方法主要包括顯微注射、基因槍、喂食可轉(zhuǎn)錄雙鏈RNA細(xì)菌、直接雙鏈RNA浸泡、病毒和農(nóng)桿菌介導(dǎo)轉(zhuǎn)化、電轉(zhuǎn)化等。Morpholino是嗎啡啉類(lèi)似物修飾的反義寡核苷酸,與mRNA前體或與剪切處結(jié)合,通過(guò)空間位阻特異性抑制翻譯或RNA剪切,實(shí)現(xiàn)基因沉默[32]。

干擾綠色熒光蛋白報(bào)告基因表達(dá)證明了RNA干擾在芽殖酵母(Saccharomyces castellii)中的可行性[33]。用此方法闡明功能的酵母基因有端粒酶和二態(tài)性相關(guān)基因等[34-35]。將RNA干擾構(gòu)建物導(dǎo)入果蠅和線(xiàn)蟲(chóng)胚胎,已闡明與生殖、胚胎發(fā)育、細(xì)胞分裂和分化、信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)通路等生命過(guò)程相關(guān)的許多基因的功能,并建立起全基因組RNA干擾轉(zhuǎn)基因文庫(kù)[36-39]。在斑馬魚(yú)[40]、小鼠[41]等的基因功能解析中,RNA干擾也是常用方法。RNA干擾與表達(dá)譜、蛋白質(zhì)互作分析[42]、敏感突變株[43]等組合使用,可對(duì)任何組織任何發(fā)育階段的基因功能進(jìn)行研究,同時(shí)還可用于反向遺傳學(xué)研究[44]。RNA干擾同樣適用植物,其解析的基因包括擬南芥耐寒性調(diào)節(jié)基因[45]、有絲分裂相關(guān)基因[46]、水稻抗病毒基因[47]等。與果蠅、線(xiàn)蟲(chóng)等模式動(dòng)物一樣,植物RNA干擾庫(kù)的建立進(jìn)一步提高了基因功能解析效率[48]。

特別需要明晰RNA干擾蛋白系統(tǒng)和小RNA的區(qū)別和關(guān)聯(lián)。小RNA(Small RNA)長(zhǎng)約20~30個(gè)核苷酸,是基因表達(dá)和基因組結(jié)構(gòu)管控的關(guān)鍵因子,調(diào)節(jié)基因表達(dá)、維持基因組穩(wěn)定。依起源、結(jié)構(gòu)、效應(yīng)蛋白等可將小RNA分為短干擾RNA(Short interfering RNA,siRNA)、微小RNA(MicroRNA,miRNA)和piwi互作RNA(Piwi-interacting RNA,piRNA)3個(gè)主要類(lèi)群。短干擾RNA源自轉(zhuǎn)入基因、病毒;著絲粒、轉(zhuǎn)座子和其他重復(fù)序列;雙向mRNA轉(zhuǎn)錄本(Convergent mRNA transcript)、正義-反義配對(duì)物(Sense-antisense pair)、假基因反義轉(zhuǎn)錄本和正?;蛘x轉(zhuǎn)錄本雙鏈、發(fā)卡結(jié)構(gòu)RNA(Hairpin RNA,hpRNA)等。因此,短干擾RNA既可源自外源核酸,也可基因組內(nèi)部產(chǎn)生。微小RNA是動(dòng)植物基因組編碼的miRNA基因的轉(zhuǎn)錄剪切產(chǎn)物,有加帽和加尾修飾。Piwi互作RNA指那些與piwi蛋白結(jié)合發(fā)揮作用的小RNA,它們控制轉(zhuǎn)座子活動(dòng),維持基因組穩(wěn)定。piRNA前體一般從基因組稱(chēng)為“聚叢(Cluster)”的區(qū)域(富含轉(zhuǎn)座子區(qū)域)轉(zhuǎn)錄而來(lái)。除piRNA外,其他2類(lèi)小RNA發(fā)揮功能都需要Dicer酶、Ago蛋白等發(fā)揮作用。miRNA、piRNA和內(nèi)源siRNA源自基因組,而外源siRNA源自人工引入;Dicer酶、Ago蛋白等早已存在,而miRNA可能只存在于多細(xì)胞真核生物中。

針對(duì)目的基因翻譯起始點(diǎn)設(shè)計(jì)Morpholino,顯微注射引入,用實(shí)時(shí)定量PCR、吖啶橙染色、原位雜交、原位免疫熒光等手段檢測(cè)基因表達(dá)水平,可快速準(zhǔn)確驗(yàn)證基因功能[49-50]。該方法已廣泛用于斑馬魚(yú)、爪蟾、小鼠等生物的基因功能研究。其缺點(diǎn)在于需重復(fù)注射且效應(yīng)短暫,對(duì)成體表型幾乎無(wú)影響,只適用發(fā)育初期相關(guān)研究。

有用RNA干擾對(duì)萊茵衣藻高產(chǎn)H2突變株進(jìn)行研究的報(bào)道。同步敲降3個(gè)捕光復(fù)合物蛋白基因使表達(dá)水平下降,H2生產(chǎn)效率和生物量換能效率升高[51]??梢灶A(yù)期,RNA干擾方法將逐步演變成微藻基因功能研究的主要方法之一。但是,Morpholino在引入、效應(yīng)維持等問(wèn)題上都存在困難,微藻中還沒(méi)有任何嘗試。如果添加在培養(yǎng)基中的Morpholino可自由進(jìn)入微藻細(xì)胞,那么,Morpholino將會(huì)成為微藻極其有效的基因功能驗(yàn)證方法,值得嘗試。

3 圖位克隆和基因組目標(biāo)區(qū)重測(cè)序

基因克隆包括序列鎖定和功能驗(yàn)證2個(gè)步驟。基因功能驗(yàn)證可用基因敲除、基因沉默等方法,而基因序列鎖定可通過(guò)圖位克隆或基因組目標(biāo)區(qū)域重測(cè)序完成。

圖位克?。∕ap-based cloning)基于遺傳連鎖或遺傳關(guān)聯(lián),將特定性狀控制區(qū)鎖定在一個(gè)很小的染色體區(qū)域(越小越好,如<1c M)的過(guò)程。測(cè)序該區(qū)域?qū)?yīng)的細(xì)菌人工染色體(BAC)或BAC重疊群,甄別所有但數(shù)量很少的功能基因,再比較相對(duì)性狀對(duì)應(yīng)基因,進(jìn)一步鎖定功能基因,最后通過(guò)引入完整功能基因恢復(fù)性狀表現(xiàn)或敲除基因喪失性狀表現(xiàn)驗(yàn)證基因功能。鎖定基因序列依賴(lài)RFLP、SSR、SNP等分子標(biāo)記連鎖圖,因而稱(chēng)為圖位克隆。高多態(tài)性分子標(biāo)記和高效基因型分型技術(shù),如基于海量平行測(cè)序的RAD[52]等,將進(jìn)一步提高圖位克隆效率。

重測(cè)序技術(shù)是在已知基因組序列基礎(chǔ)上,對(duì)群體或個(gè)體基因組中的特定區(qū)域(甚至全基因組)進(jìn)行測(cè)序,掃描序列變異,甄別基因[53]。在化學(xué)誘變突變體中,組合使用重測(cè)序方法、定向誘導(dǎo)基因組局部突變技術(shù)(Targeting induced local lesions in genomes,TILLING)和多種信息學(xué)分析手段,可高效率、高通量識(shí)別和篩查基因突變[54-56]。

微藻中,萊茵衣藻已有分子標(biāo)記連鎖圖譜構(gòu)建[57]和圖位克?。?8]嘗試。但這些嘗試基于連鎖分析,需經(jīng)有性生殖和雜交構(gòu)建分離群體。大多數(shù)微藻生活史不詳,沒(méi)有有性生殖或者有性生殖過(guò)程難以操控。誘變技術(shù)可以創(chuàng)制豐富變異,并且可與人工進(jìn)化[59-61]結(jié)合使用。各種突變技術(shù)已在酵母、細(xì)菌等遺傳改良中廣泛使用。近年來(lái),更有離子束注入[62-63]、常溫常壓等離子體[64]誘變進(jìn)一步提高誘變深度、誘變效率和誘變安全性。關(guān)聯(lián)分析[65]也早已用于酵母[66]、高等植物[67-68]的基因序列鎖定。目前已有大量微藻基因組獲得測(cè)序[89-95]。在這些基因組序列基礎(chǔ)上,既可用高密度標(biāo)記,也能用重測(cè)序分型基因型。因此,“誘變創(chuàng)制變異群體、關(guān)聯(lián)分析或重測(cè)序鎖定基因序列、基因敲除或沉默驗(yàn)證基因功能”途徑將是微藻全新基因克隆的主要手段。

4 插入突變(Insertional mutation)

插入突變將外源DNA隨機(jī)插入到基因組中,影響插入位點(diǎn)基因正常表達(dá),產(chǎn)生具有突變表型的插入突變體,是1種可以在所有基因中誘導(dǎo)突變的方法。與基因捕獲相似,插入序列作為標(biāo)記可以識(shí)別插入位點(diǎn),追尋內(nèi)源基因。通過(guò)對(duì)側(cè)翼序列直接進(jìn)行同源搜索或染色體步移可獲得候選基因,并用反轉(zhuǎn)錄或原位雜交等方法對(duì)插入突變破壞的基因表達(dá)作進(jìn)一步證實(shí)[69-70]。

常用的插入DNA有T-DNA、轉(zhuǎn)座子等。來(lái)自根癌農(nóng)桿菌Ti質(zhì)粒的T-DNA在基因組中整合,一般只有1~2個(gè)拷貝,可引起插入突變[71]。T-DNA插入突變已在擬南芥、水稻等生物的基因功能研究廣泛應(yīng)用。雖然T-DNA插入能產(chǎn)生穩(wěn)定突變,但僅適用農(nóng)桿菌介導(dǎo)的遺傳轉(zhuǎn)化。另外,T-DNA整合可能引起染色體重排,導(dǎo)致與插入突變無(wú)關(guān)的表型,為遺傳學(xué)分析帶來(lái)困難[72]。轉(zhuǎn)座子可在基因座之間移動(dòng),插入基因時(shí)可影響基因表達(dá),引起突變。與T-DNA相比,轉(zhuǎn)座子可在轉(zhuǎn)移酶作用下被剪切掉,使生物體恢復(fù)野生型表型。因此,可依據(jù)突變體表型的可恢復(fù)性判定突變是否由轉(zhuǎn)座子插入引起。在斑馬魚(yú)中,將基于莫洛尼鼠類(lèi)白血病假型逆轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒載體大規(guī)模插入基因組,可快速識(shí)別早期脊椎動(dòng)物發(fā)育相關(guān)基因[70,73]。

微藻中廣泛存在病毒或噬藻體。因此,微藻中也應(yīng)該能建立插入突變體系。不過(guò),目前還沒(méi)有任何嘗試。相關(guān)研究有望成為微藻新基因克隆的1個(gè)全新研究領(lǐng)域。

5 基因組編輯(Genome editing)

核酸內(nèi)切酶早已用于體外DNA分析,俗稱(chēng)分子剪刀,可精確識(shí)別和切斷核酸序列。結(jié)合核酸內(nèi)切酶切斷DNA以及基因組非同源末端連接或同源重組修復(fù)機(jī)制,可以實(shí)現(xiàn)基因組定點(diǎn)修飾,完成基因組編輯[74]。

鋅指核酸內(nèi)切酶就是為基因組編輯設(shè)計(jì)的1種限制性?xún)?nèi)切酶-鋅指蛋白融合蛋白。鋅指核酸內(nèi)切酶由一系列鋅指蛋白單元和非特異性限制性?xún)?nèi)切酶Fok I切割域融合形成[75],每個(gè)鋅指蛋白可用其α螺旋上-1~+6氨基酸殘基識(shí)別1個(gè)三聯(lián)體堿基[76],因此,設(shè)計(jì)改造氨基酸殘基組成就可設(shè)計(jì)出特異性識(shí)別DNA序列的鋅指蛋白[77]。當(dāng)兩個(gè)特別設(shè)計(jì)的“鋅指蛋白-內(nèi)切酶”與目標(biāo)DNA結(jié)合,內(nèi)切酶切斷DNA,基因組修復(fù)切點(diǎn)時(shí)定點(diǎn)引入突變。鋅指核酸內(nèi)切酶已被成功用于果蠅、線(xiàn)蟲(chóng)、斑馬魚(yú)和哺乳動(dòng)物等基因組編輯,其特異位點(diǎn)突變效率與基因敲除相比可提高103~105倍[78],但也存在許多問(wèn)題,例如鋅指蛋白結(jié)構(gòu)間的相似性可能影響識(shí)別的特異性,使可操作基因范圍受到限制。

轉(zhuǎn)錄激活因子樣效應(yīng)物(Transcription activatorlike effectors,TALE)是一類(lèi)可調(diào)節(jié)內(nèi)源基因轉(zhuǎn)錄活動(dòng)的蛋白質(zhì),其DNA結(jié)合結(jié)構(gòu)域有多個(gè)重復(fù)單位,每個(gè)重復(fù)單位由33~35個(gè)氨基酸構(gòu)成,可識(shí)別1個(gè)堿基對(duì)。TALENs是人工合成的含TALE DNA結(jié)合域和Fok I切割域的融合蛋白,可用于基因組編輯[79]。與鋅指核酸酶相比,TALENs不會(huì)有重復(fù)單元間的關(guān)聯(lián)影響,相對(duì)更易設(shè)計(jì),DNA識(shí)別更特異[80]。

成簇的規(guī)律間隔的短回文重復(fù)序列(Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats,CRISPR)來(lái)自特殊的遺傳座位,這些遺傳座位一般由21~48 bp的回文重復(fù)序列和重復(fù)序列間26~72 bp非重復(fù)性間隔序列組成,側(cè)翼序列為4~20個(gè)數(shù)量不等的CRISPR相關(guān)基因(cas)。CRISPR/Cas系統(tǒng)是1種細(xì)菌特有的防御系統(tǒng)[81]。Cas核酸酶受短鏈RNA引導(dǎo)進(jìn)行位點(diǎn)特異性DNA切割,并引發(fā)細(xì)胞使用事先引入的正確的基因序列模板按照相似性進(jìn)行損傷修復(fù)。這種RNA引導(dǎo)的核酸酶技術(shù)易于設(shè)計(jì)、應(yīng)用廣泛,且可將多條引導(dǎo)序列編碼到1個(gè)CRISPR上,從而實(shí)現(xiàn)基因組多個(gè)位點(diǎn)同步編輯[82]。CRISPR/Cas介導(dǎo)的基因調(diào)節(jié)能抑制某些細(xì)菌蛋白(如脂蛋白)轉(zhuǎn)錄物的生成,轉(zhuǎn)錄水平可降低100倍。因此,也可通過(guò)對(duì)蛋白表達(dá)的抑制來(lái)研究相關(guān)基因功能[83]。

這些方法最初在細(xì)菌中研發(fā)和應(yīng)用,并逐漸延伸到一些模式生物、高等動(dòng)植物[84-86]。雖然目前微藻的相關(guān)研究幾乎為零,但受其他生物的啟發(fā),我們有理由相信這些理念和工具一定會(huì)很快引入微藻,開(kāi)展相關(guān)基礎(chǔ)研究探索。

6 結(jié)語(yǔ)

微藻種類(lèi)多,分布廣,除在生態(tài)系統(tǒng)具有不可替代的作用,微藻在水產(chǎn)養(yǎng)殖、生物能源開(kāi)發(fā)、食品飼料研制等方面也有極顯著的應(yīng)用價(jià)值。包括基因組測(cè)序在內(nèi),微藻分子生物學(xué)研究正蓬勃開(kāi)展。但是,微藻新基因克隆案例卻很少。已有的嘗試也都基于序列和結(jié)構(gòu)的同源性,實(shí)質(zhì)上是從已知到已知的基因序列分離過(guò)程。模式生物和經(jīng)濟(jì)動(dòng)植物的新基因克隆需鎖定序列,同時(shí)在生物體系中驗(yàn)證功能。其中,功能驗(yàn)證是新基因克隆最重要的內(nèi)容。已有的基因功能驗(yàn)證方法有基因敲除、基因沉默、RNA干擾、基因組編輯等。微藻中有嘗試,但還處于起步階段。值得慶幸的是,多種微藻已有遺傳轉(zhuǎn)化技術(shù),有望直接采用模式生物和經(jīng)濟(jì)動(dòng)植物基因功能驗(yàn)證技術(shù)來(lái)克隆新基因。

本文歸納了模式生物和經(jīng)濟(jì)動(dòng)植物已有新基因功能驗(yàn)證技術(shù),并結(jié)合微藻生物學(xué)特性分析了這些技術(shù)在微藻新基因克隆中的適用性,以促進(jìn)微藻新基因克隆研究。筆者相信,基因敲除、基因沉默、RNA干擾等技術(shù)將很快用于微藻新基因克隆研究;而插入突變、基因組編輯等技術(shù)用于微藻新基因克隆可能還需要先克服一些技術(shù)瓶頸。另外,任何單一方法都不能適用所有基因功能闡明的需要。微藻特別需要闡明基因功能的方法以加快從頭克隆微藻新基因。筆者的歸納和分析將有助于微藻新基因克隆直接采用或仿效借鑒已有新基因功能驗(yàn)證技術(shù)。

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Function-Verifying Techniques of Novel Genes and Their Applicability in Gene Cloning of Microalgae

YANG Guan-Pin,LIN Gin-Mei
(College of Marine Life Sciences,Ocean University of China,Qingdao 266003,China)

In microalgae,a group of eukaryotic,single cellular and photosynthesis-performaing microbes belong.Diverse microalgae inhabit various environments,and many of them are of values to aquaculture and biofuel exploitation.Being similar to model organisms and economic animals and plants,cloning novel genes is one of the major researching activities of microalgal biology.Genome annotation,transcriptome analysis and gene isolation are based on sequential and structural homology,which are actually a process of searching the homologs by using known queries.In contrast,cloning a novel gene needs to obtain the sequence of a gene and most crucially verify its function at the same time.The currently available methods of verifying the function of a gene includes gene knockout,gene silencing,insertional mutation,genome editing and among others.Genetic transformation has met success in many microalgal species,making function verifying of microalgal genes by adopting directly the methods available for model organisms and economic animals and plants possible.Here we reviewed these methods and analyzed their applicability to microalgae.Such an analysis may aid to cloning novel microalgal genes.

microalga;novel gene;gene cloning;genetic transformation

Q785

A

1672-5174(2014)10-072-08

責(zé)任編輯 高 蓓

國(guó)家海洋局海洋生物活性物質(zhì)與現(xiàn)代分析技術(shù)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室開(kāi)放課題資助;國(guó)家自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(31270408)資助

2014-04-09;

2014-04-23

楊官品(1963-),男,教授,博導(dǎo),主要從事藻類(lèi)遺傳學(xué)研究。E-mail:yguanpin@ouc.edu.cn

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