吳碧宇 王建國
(華東理工大學(xué), 上海 200237)
英語篇章的話題系統(tǒng)*
吳碧宇 王建國
(華東理工大學(xué), 上海 200237)
本文首先明確話題和話題鏈的定義,從縱向和橫向?qū)υ掝}句或鏈類型進(jìn)行分類,描寫英語話題的橫向發(fā)展和縱向發(fā)展。根據(jù)話題的語義延續(xù)性以及話題句或鏈之間的層次,從三個(gè)方面區(qū)分話題鏈,最后把所有各個(gè)層次上的話題鏈類型歸結(jié)于句子鏈、超句話題鏈和篇章話題鏈等類型,從而構(gòu)建出整個(gè)英語篇章的話題系統(tǒng)。
英語話題;話題鏈類型;英語篇章的話題系統(tǒng)
This paper begins with defining the term “topic” and “topic chain”, and then classifies the varying types of topic chains from the horizontal and vertical perspectives, which helps to describe the development of the topics. From the point of view of semantic continuity and ranking of topics, topic chains are classified hierarchically from three perspectives. A topic system of English texts should be formulated based on (1) sentence topic chains, (2)super-sentence topic chains, and (3)text topic chains.
話題是話語或篇章概念,一定有所指。話題往往位于話語的起始之處,有自己的標(biāo)記,但常常被省略。話題的基本話語功能就是“相關(guān)性”(aboutness),即體現(xiàn)為可以連接小句或更大的結(jié)構(gòu)單位。(屈承熹 1999)這表現(xiàn)在話題為述說(comment)劃定時(shí)間、空間或個(gè)體方面的背景與范圍,從而為述說提供起點(diǎn)。話題可能實(shí)現(xiàn)的語言形式主要有:小句、名詞短語、謂詞短語、形容詞短語、頻度副詞短語、介賓結(jié)構(gòu)、代名詞、零形式,表示某個(gè)具體或抽象的實(shí)體。(王建國 2009)
話題鏈的概念由Dixon(1972)提出,由曹逢甫(1977)引入漢語研究,曹逢甫(1979/1995, 1990/2005)、李櫻(1985)、石定栩(1992, 2000)、屈承熹(1998)、李文丹(2005)、彭宣維(2005)等學(xué)者展開了深入的研究。無論組織篇章,還是理解篇章,話題鏈都起著重要的作用。(李虹 1995)然而,以往對(duì)話題鏈篇章功能的研究多在句子層面上(曹逢甫 1979/1995, 石定栩 1992),因而未能更好地討論話題鏈構(gòu)建篇章的作用。彭宣維是把話題鏈概念引入到英語篇章研究中的學(xué)者之一,主要研究英語話題鏈與篇章構(gòu)成之間的關(guān)系,在一定程度上解決了把句子話題和篇章話題割裂開來的問題,推動(dòng)了話題鏈的研究。本文將在前人研究的基礎(chǔ)上,進(jìn)一步探討這一問題。
我們認(rèn)為,話題鏈?zhǔn)枪蚕碓掝}的系列小句,只要話題的語義得到延續(xù),話題鏈就不會(huì)斷裂。篇章中話題的語義不僅可以全部延續(xù),即橫向發(fā)展,還可以部分延續(xù),即縱向發(fā)展。
一個(gè)話題在其全部語義得到延續(xù)的過程中,即橫向發(fā)展中,可能出現(xiàn)不同的變體,如圖1所示。(彭宣維 2005)例如:
① The UN is divided into six major groups. Each groupihas an important job to do within the UN system. Theyiare the General Assembly, Security Council, Secretariat, Economic and Social Council, International Court of Justice, and Trusteeship Council. (彭宣維 2005)(Each group是they的個(gè)體指稱變體)
② Mexicoifinanced the remaining balance on the loan by issuing bonds with high interest rates. The governmentistated that the shift from the United States loan to state bonds would save the Mexican government 100 million in repayment fees per year.(同上)(The government是Mexico的借代指稱變體)
③ An elephant,waving her painted forehead at the morn... The elephantihad knelt,grey and isolated, like another hill... Then the beastirose in two shattering movements, and poised them ten feet above the plain.(同上)(the beast是the elephant的下義指稱變體)
④ Maryifound herself a seat on a rock that had been rolled against the trunk of an old apple tree... The doctor’s daughterihad been to the decayed old orchard many times before.(同上) (The doctor’s daughter是Mary的角色指稱變體)
圖1話題橫向發(fā)展中可能出現(xiàn)的形式示意圖
那么,話題在橫向發(fā)展中是如何對(duì)篇章構(gòu)建起作用的呢?王建國認(rèn)為,篇章的信息處理單位,即語義單位,可分為小句、句子、超句和篇章。(王建國 2009)其中小句為最基本的篇章信息處理單位,句子是由一個(gè)主題(theme)控制的、由一個(gè)或多個(gè)小句構(gòu)成的語義單位,超句是由一個(gè)主題控制的、由多個(gè)句子構(gòu)成的語義單位,篇章則是最大的語義單位。三者在一定的情況下可以重合。由此,若話題的語義在后續(xù)話語中得到全部延續(xù),根據(jù)其延續(xù)的結(jié)構(gòu)單位大小,可以劃分出層次不一的話題鏈類型,如句子話題鏈⑤、超句話題鏈⑥和篇章話題鏈,它們體現(xiàn)話題鏈在橫向上的層次性。篇章話題鏈往往是由篇章標(biāo)題為話題引導(dǎo)的話題鏈,參見本文第5小節(jié)中的樣本分析。
⑤ Because of her medical and her legal billsi, she is now penniless and deeply in debt. (Collins2003)
⑥ [Sheistarted in the bathroom. Sheiput the shaving brush, the disposable razor, the toothbrush and the dental floss in a large black bin bag.] (Fireworks)
橫向維度上,我們還可以從一級(jí)話題和非一級(jí)話題的角度識(shí)別出具有橫向?qū)哟紊系脑掝}鏈,即一級(jí)話題和非一級(jí)話題的話題鏈。根據(jù)話題在篇章中的地位,曹逢甫(1990/2005:i)把話題分為一級(jí)話題(primary topic)、二級(jí)話題(secondary topic)和三級(jí)話題(tertiary topic)等,話題轄域(topic scope)逐次變小。轄域更小的話題所引導(dǎo)的話題鏈包括在轄域更大的話題所引導(dǎo)的話題鏈內(nèi)。這樣,例⑦中“there”為一級(jí)話題,“she”為二級(jí)話題,它們分別構(gòu)成一級(jí)和二級(jí)話題鏈。
⑦ Therei [sheijfound the toolbox and assorted DIY equipment, and ?ij trashed the lot]. (Fireworks)
當(dāng)話題的部分語義得到延續(xù)時(shí)可引出語義上具有上下位關(guān)系的話題,如圖2所示,這些話題又引出其他話題結(jié)構(gòu),這些話題結(jié)構(gòu)與由上位或下位話題引導(dǎo)的話題結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)成縱向意義上的不同層次的話題句或話題鏈。
圖2話題縱向發(fā)展示意圖
⑧ Purposes and principlesi. The charter lists four purposes and seven principles of the United Nations. The first purposeijis to... The second purposeikis to...The thirdilis to... The fourth purposeimis to...; The first principle of the United Nationsiis that. Second, all members are expected to... Third, they agree to... Fourth, they agree not to... Fifth, members agree to... Sixth, the UN agrees to... And seventh, the UN accepts the principle of...(彭宣維 2005)(集體或個(gè)體話題鏈)
⑨ Iiscream my pain out from my gut as the last shrouds of sunlight fall from the earth and darkness wraps me in her embrace. My voiceijechoes off the canyon walls, coming back to me. Iiraise my arms, spread wide, ... (HopeAndComfort) (整體或部分話題鏈)
⑩ Linguisticsistudies the full range of aspects of human language. It investigates the phonetics, grammar and semantics of individual languages, ...Corpus linguisticsijlooks at language from a social perspective; Corpus linguistics deals with exchanging and sharing content.(上位或下位話題鏈)
在一定的語境中,一些句法結(jié)構(gòu),包括話題鏈,在構(gòu)建篇章時(shí)的地位較低,可視為具有更高地位的話題鏈中的插入成分。
屈承熹(1998)、李文丹(2005)和王建國(2009)都對(duì)漢語話題鏈中的插入成分作了討論。王建國指出,漢語話題鏈中的中間插入成分一般都是話題句或話題鏈。
英語中也有這種情況。彭宣維提出的斷續(xù)型(intermittent)話題鏈就是注意到話題鏈中可以插入非一級(jí)話題的小句。(彭宣維 2005)例如:
王建國指出,話題結(jié)構(gòu)插入成分有兩種可能:一種是由與話題鏈的主話題具有縱向?qū)哟紊系纳舷挛?、集體與個(gè)體、整體與部分、領(lǐng)屬與所屬等關(guān)系的次話題引導(dǎo)的一個(gè)話題句或話題鏈,如例⑨;另一種是由與話題鏈的主話題具有橫向?qū)哟紊系闹鞔侮P(guān)系的次話題所引導(dǎo)的一個(gè)話題句或話題鏈,如例、。
我們發(fā)現(xiàn),縱向?qū)哟紊系脑掝}結(jié)構(gòu)可以通過一級(jí)話題鏈和非一級(jí)話題鏈來說明。在例中,話題I與my house之間的關(guān)系是領(lǐng)屬與所屬關(guān)系,因此,兩者引導(dǎo)的話題鏈具有上下位的關(guān)系,同時(shí),I又引導(dǎo)一級(jí)話題鏈,my house引導(dǎo)二級(jí)話題鏈。在上下位等幾種關(guān)系的話題中,當(dāng)其對(duì)立面的話題為一級(jí)話題時(shí),其往往為非一級(jí)話題,這主要是因?yàn)檫@些話題之間的關(guān)系往往是部分意義延續(xù)之間的關(guān)系。因而,這些非一級(jí)話題結(jié)構(gòu)往往可能作為插入鏈的成分與一級(jí)話題鏈構(gòu)成更大的篇章單位。再者,插入成分往往是在超句話題鏈內(nèi)。這樣,一級(jí)或非一級(jí)話題鏈又與橫向?qū)哟紊系木渥釉掝}鏈、超句話題鏈或篇章話題鏈重合。
由此,整個(gè)篇章的話題鏈系統(tǒng)就可以根據(jù)篇章話題鏈、超句話題鏈和句子話題鏈而構(gòu)建起來。根據(jù)這種話題鏈類型的分類,本文構(gòu)建的話題鏈系統(tǒng)如圖3。由于話題句和非話題結(jié)構(gòu)都可以通過插入方式納入到話題鏈中,因而該話題鏈系統(tǒng)也就反映了篇章中各種話題以各種方式的發(fā)展,也可稱之為篇章的話題系統(tǒng)。
圖3英語篇章話題系統(tǒng)
基于英語話題鏈系統(tǒng)的文本分析如下。
PaulGricei
[Herbert Paul Gricei, universally known as Paul, was born on March 13, 1913 in Birmingham, England and died on August 28, 1988 in Berkeley CA. Griceireceived firsts in classical honours moderation (1933) andliteraehumaniores(1935) from Corpus ChristiCollege, Oxford.][[After a year teaching in a public schoolij, [heireturned to Oxford where, with a nearly five year interruption for service in the Royal Navy, he taught in various positions until 1967 when he moved to the University of California-Berkeley. Heitaught there past his official 1979 retirement until his death in 1988. Heiwas philosophically active until his death — holding discussions at his home, giving lectures and editing a collection of his work that was posthumously published asStudiesintheWayofWords. Heiis best known for his innovative work in philosophy of language, but also made important contributions to metaphysics, ethics and to the study of Aristotle and Kant.]] [[His workikhas also been influential outside of philosophy in linguistics and artificial intelligence. [[[Although relatively little work was published during his lifeikl, he had a very wide influence via lectures and unpublished manuscripts. [[[[The best known of theseiklmweretheWilliamJamesLectureswhich he gave at Harvard in early 1967 and which circulated widely in unauthorized manuscript form until they were published as part ofStudiesintheWayofWords.]]]][Heialso played cricket, chess and piano, each at a very high level of accomplishment.] (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/grice/#Ove)
Paul Grice是篇章話題鏈的話題,Herbert Paul Grice, Grice, he與其同指。整個(gè)篇章話題鏈中又包括了兩個(gè)上位的超句話題鏈,分別以After a year teaching in a public school和his work引導(dǎo)。前者插入了一個(gè)以he引導(dǎo)的次超句話題鏈,后者插入了Although relatively little work was published during his life引導(dǎo)的話題句,該話題句中的lectures and unpublished manuscripts又引出了The best known of these引導(dǎo)的話題句。
圖4樣本篇章的話題系統(tǒng)示意圖
本文根據(jù)英語話題的全部語義延續(xù)以及部分語義延續(xù)等兩種情況,從橫向和縱向兩個(gè)維度考察了英語話題鏈的形成,并構(gòu)建了英語話題鏈系統(tǒng)。本話題鏈系統(tǒng)反映了篇章話題對(duì)篇章構(gòu)成的影響,有效地把句子話題和篇章話題聯(lián)系了起來。
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ATopicSystemofEnglishTexts
Wu Bi-yu Wang Jian-guo
(East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China)
English topics; types of topic chains; a topic system of English texts
*本文系國家社科基金青年項(xiàng)目“論話題的延續(xù):基于話題鏈的漢英篇章研究”(08CYY002)的階段性成果。感謝北京外國語大學(xué)中國外語教育研究中心陳國華教授、華東理工大學(xué)外國語學(xué)院邵志洪教授的悉心指導(dǎo)。
H030
A
1000-0100(2012)02-0081-4
2011-11-21
【責(zé)任編輯王松鶴】